Chapter 630 - Red Barbarian Cannons

The discussion was still underway when a personal guard suddenly reported that the cannon consecration ceremony was ready to proceed. To counter the Hair Thieves' formidable firearms, Foshan had recently delivered ten freshly cast "Red Barbarian Cannons" (Hongyi Cannons). He Rubin had ordered an auspicious day chosen for him to personally consecrate and test-fire the weapons.

Today was that auspicious day. He Rubin led his staff to the drill ground. All his principal generals were present, and Lu Yizhong had also attended, looking about with obvious interest. Ten glistening bronze cannons were mounted on newly constructed, sturdy elm carriages with two wheels and two stabilizing legs, presenting a robust appearance. An altar table stood before the cannons, upon which rested a red paper spirit tablet inscribed "Spirit Position of the Great General Cannon." Before the tablet were arranged offerings of three livestock, clear wine, incense burners, candlesticks, and other ritual implements.

He Rubin, accompanied by Li Modao, the commander of the Firearms Battalion holding the rank of Defender, washed his hands and burned incense, then bowed devoutly three times to the Cannon God. He also recited a prayer drafted beforehand by his staff, then poured a full cup of wine onto the ground. Ten gunners first knelt and bowed to the Commander-in-Chief and the assembled officers, then moved to the cannons, knelt once more, and kowtowed three more times before proceeding to man their weapons.

Next came the cannon demonstration—the so-called "Auspicious Cannon Firing." Test-firing newly cast cannons was standard practice in weapon manufacturing. However, once cannons entered military service, traditional Chinese siege weapons like battering rams and trebuchets immediately paled in comparison. Cannons inevitably acquired a mystical aura, leading to the development of various rituals. Since the Yuan Dynasty, cannons had been given titles and received sacrificial offerings.

He Rubin attached great importance to the cannon consecration ceremony. On one hand, he believed it would boost morale; on the other, he wanted to assess the power of these provincially manufactured Red Barbarian Cannons for himself. He was among the early adopters of Red Barbarian Cannons; when they were first introduced during the Tianqi era, he had observed test firings, studied Western gunnery, and even obtained a book on firearms.

By this time, the technology for manufacturing Red Barbarian Cannons had matured considerably. The cannons produced at Li Luoyou's foundry used guns borrowed from Macau as models, and he kept a German Jesuit missionary, Johann Adam Schall von Bell, concealed in his household for constant guidance. After returning from Lingao, Li Luoyou had constructed some improvised equipment based on what he had observed at the Lingao Gun Foundry, supplemented by instruction from the Europeans around him. He had applied the technique of boring barrels smooth with a rotating cutter. Consequently, the Red Barbarian Cannons cast at his foundry were visibly superior to those produced elsewhere.

"These cannons are well made," He Rubin praised. He could already see that this batch consisted of lighter-weight Red Barbarian Cannons. "Who cast them?"

"Answering Your Excellency: They were cast by the Li family foundry in Foshan," Li Modao reported. "Their foundry differs from others—their cannons are particularly excellent."

He Rubin thought for a moment and asked: "Would that be Li Luoyou?"

"Exactly. I understand he was most eager in this cannon-casting endeavor, specifically requesting that the Governor issue a letter to borrow cannons from the Franks for use as models."

"No wonder his cannons are so well made—Manager Li is practically half a foreign barbarian," He Rubin laughed. "I heard he served as an altar boy for Frankish foreign monks in Macau when he was young and developed quite intimate relations with them. His sympathies with Franks are indeed different!"

Everyone laughed heartily. It was well known that He Rubin strongly disliked foreign religions and naturally harbored distaste for people who were Christians or maintained deep ties with the Macau church.

"Please give the order, Commander," Li Modao said, clasping his hands. "Shall we fire the cannons immediately?" Upon receiving He Rubin's consent, Li Modao waved the command flag in his hand:

"By the Commander's order—test fire immediately!"

At his command, ten gunners rushed forward and pushed out one of the cannons. Red Barbarian Cannons were extremely heavy; even this field artillery piece, designed to fire 5-catty balls, weighed 1,500 catties. To bear the weight and ensure durability, the carriages were made of particularly thick and heavy materials, with many iron nails and hoops reinforcing the wheels. The whole artillery piece was cumbersome in the extreme, and the ten gunners strained to move it.

The gunners pushed the cannon into position. One of them first used a gunner's quadrant to measure the elevation angle. Red Barbarian Cannons were essentially culverins and were generally fired at lower angles for maximum range.

The gunner reported loudly: "Quadrant height six fen!" Then another gunner used a hammer to strike the wooden wedge inserted between the barrel and the carriage, gradually raising the muzzle.

A quadrant height of six fen corresponded roughly to a 45-degree angle—the elevation for maximum range from a smoothbore cannon.

"At a barrel elevation of six fen, the shot can reach one thousand and fifty-three paces," He Rubin explained to the staff and generals. "If the elevation is seven fen, the shot falls shorter." He had personally compiled Western Fire Attack Divine Devices and knew this material by heart.

Li Modao replied respectfully: "Your Excellency's insight is most accurate."

Once the barrel was elevated into position, the gunner shouted again: "Use two catties six taels of powder!"

Two other gunners quickly retrieved a porcelain jar from a pit. This jar was specifically designed for storing gunpowder—glazed inside and out, with a constricted neck for tying and a rattan or bamboo casing for carrying. The gunner broke the sealing clay, removed the porcelain saucer covering the mouth, measured out gunpowder scoop by scoop with a wooden ladle, and poured it into the barrel. One gunner used a long rammer to push the powder to the bottom of the bore, then inserted a fuse made of paper and powder into the vent near the breech. They continued loading powder and rammed it tight, inserted a wooden wad, and finally loaded the iron ball.

Li Modao instructed everyone to retreat ten zhang away. Other officers and soldiers also withdrew to a safe distance, prepared for accidents. Li Modao himself retreated only one zhang. He waved the small flag in his hand and said:

"Fire!"

A gunner touched the fuse with a burning torch. The gunners immediately retreated to Li Modao's side, their faces tense, all watching as the fuse hissed and sparked, shortening rapidly.

Although cannons were powerful, cannon casting at this time lacked proper process management. Material quality varied widely, and consistency could not be guaranteed. Inexperienced gunners learned from translated Western gunnery manuals that ignored unit conversions... All this caused many cannons to explode on their first firing, often killing or wounding numerous personnel.

The fuse burned into the vent with hissing sparks. Suddenly, red light flashed at the vent, followed by fire erupting from the muzzle and a thunderous boom. Everyone felt the ground shake, and thick smoke instantly enveloped the front of the cannon. When the piece fired, the staff and officers instinctively hunched over, and the gunners squatted down sharply.

Li Modao bent at the waist; upon seeing the red flash, he quickly opened his mouth wide. After the detonation, he sprinted to the cannon, inspected it carefully, touched it with his hand, and felt relieved. He hurried back to report:

"Your Excellency! The cannon is intact."

He Rubin and his staff and officers approached. They examined the barrel and carriage; both remained solid as before. All were highly satisfied. After a while, a personal guard galloped back from a mound two li distant to report: the cannonball had sailed over the mound and shattered a tree behind it.

"The Hair Thieves claim to possess fearsome firearms—how do they compare to this cannon?" He Rubin laughed.

"However fearsome Hair Thief cannons may be, they are merely this," Chang Qingyun declared.

"Hehe, this is only a small cannon firing a 5-catty ball. If it were a large cannon firing a 15-catty ball, one shot could devastate three or four li. The Hair Thieves' firearms, however formidable, amount to no more than this." He Rubin was confident. "Defender Li, how many large cannons does the Firearms Battalion currently possess?"

"Reporting to Your Excellency: including these ten Red Barbarian Cannons, new and old cannons total one hundred sixty-four pieces."

"Excluding Crouching Tiger cannons and the like—excluding these small guns, how many?"

"Reporting to Your Excellency: thirty-eight pieces."

"Good!" He Rubin was quite satisfied. "Here are sample specimens of newly cast Western cannonballs sent by the Ministry of Works. Test-fire them one by one. If any prove useful, order the foundry to rush production immediately."

"Yes, Your Excellency."

This batch of new-style cannonballs had been cast under Johann Adam Schall von Bell's supervision and distributed to Liaodong, the Capital Region, Shandong, Fujian, Guangdong, and other places equipped with Red Barbarian Cannons for field testing.

These cannonballs bore various names: Dragon Roar Shot, Chain Shot, Drill Shot, Chisel Shot, and others. They were numerous and strange-looking. Li Modao loaded and tested them one by one, but no one could discern any specific function for these unusual projectiles, and their ranges were much shorter. Only the enormous whistling sound produced by the Dragon Roar Shot impressed everyone as having some deterrent value.

As for the chain shot—which split into two hemispheres connected by a chain after firing—and the bar shot—with a fixed iron bar between two hemispheres—and the expanding shot—four hemispheres connected by chains to a central iron knob—they looked impressive but achieved much shorter ranges. The staff officers concluded it would be more effective to simply fire solid balls and grapeshot.

"Defender Li, what do you think of these cannonballs?" He Rubin asked.

"Your Excellency, the Dragon Roar Shot sounds like a dragon's roar and may serve to break enemy morale. But it is not the orthodox method. As for the others..." Li Modao found these oddly shaped projectiles useless. "This humble officer believes they can be used, but they waste labor and material and do not shoot far."

"Those foreign monks only know how to tinker with strange gadgets to impress people." He Rubin laughed. "We shall not use this assortment."

He Rubin then inspected the Firearms Battalion itself. This battalion had been specially established to deal with the Hair Thieves, gathering many cannons and constructing many new carriages. Seeing the Firearms Battalion's orderly ranks, excellent armor and weapons, and soldiers busily drilling or maintaining equipment with no idlers in sight, He Rubin felt very satisfied.

"Defender Li!"

"Your Excellency!" Li Modao hurried forward.

"You lead your troops well!"

"All thanks to Your Excellency's commanding presence!"

"Mm." He Rubin nodded. "I hear you are skilled with firearms. The Hair Thieves have earned a reputation for formidable weapons—what do you think?"

"Reporting to Your Excellency," Li Modao said cautiously, "this humble officer has never seen Hair Thief firearms. I have only heard they possess giant cannons capable of shooting over ten li. In this humble officer's opinion, such rumors are mostly exaggerated."

"How so?"

"This humble officer has served in the army for sixteen years. I began as a three-barreled gunner and have handled countless firearms, large and small. The ranges of firearms are almost always overstated. From what I have observed using cannons over the years, the medium Frankish breech-loader shoots no more than two hundred paces; the Crouching Tiger cannon, no more than thirty or forty. Yet books claim they reach several li, even tens of li. Even Red Barbarian Cannons, though classified as 1,000, 2,000, or 5,000 catties, actually shoot at maximum no more than three li. Giant cannons do not necessarily shoot far."

He Rubin appreciated these words, thinking that only someone with actual combat experience could speak so practically. He sized up this thirty-something officer: square face, tall and sturdy build, powerful physique. Clearly a man suited for battlefield combat.

"Have you seen action?"

"Reporting to Your Excellency, this humble officer once followed Garrison Commander Zhou of the Zhejiang Battalion in the Sarhu Campaign. After the Eastern Route Army was defeated, I led my brothers to defend a high ridge, resisting the enemy with firearms until dusk, when the barbarian soldiers slackened their assault. Then I broke out in a single charge." Li Modao spoke of this history with evident pride.

"Liaodong's solid defense relies greatly on firearms." He Rubin asked, "Now that the Hair Thieves possess firearms no inferior to ours, if both sides face comparable danger, how should firearms be deployed?"

Li Modao's face flushed with excitement; the Commander-in-Chief consulting him on strategy was an enormous honor. He had pondered this question many times, so he steadied himself and replied:

"In this humble officer's limited view, although the Hair Thieves may number tens of thousands, their forces consist of either Fujian and Guangdong traitors or coerced commoners—a mere rabble. They definitely will not dare engage our army in open field battle. Their strategy is undoubtedly to imitate the Red Hairs' old tactics at Penghu: constructing strong stockades and mounting heavy cannons to defend a corner. After our troops surround them over time, and since the range of enemy cannons differs little from ours, our forces can dig trenches advancing to within half a li or one li of the enemy stockade walls. The trenches must be wide and deep enough to accommodate cannon carriages. Our cannons can advance forward along the trench bottoms, approaching the stockade gates and walls to fire. My cannons can reach the enemy; their cannons cannot harm me."

"What if the Hair Thieves sortie to capture our cannons?"

"At each cannon position, deploy two squads of infantry equipped with Crouching Tiger cannons and three-barreled guns, ready to fight at any moment. Our troops have deep trenches for cover; enemy cannons cannot reach us. If our strength should falter, fresh reinforcements can be committed at any time."

He glanced at He Rubin and quickly added: "This humble officer presumes to lecture before an expert; this is merely a humble opinion."

He Rubin had never heard of such tactics: digging ditches on flat ground and having cannon carriages move along the trench bottoms. His first impulse was to dismiss it as "absurd!" But upon reflection, this method might have some merit. If the Hair Thieves refused to retreat, it could be worth attempting.

Yet he said neither good nor bad. Expressionless, he departed amid his retinue.

Li Modao respectfully saw the Commander off with great care. He felt uneasy, uncertain whether his speech had pleased or displeased the Commander, or whether it had suited his tastes. Commander He's favor was crucial to his career—he had spent sixteen years climbing to the rank of Defender and had only recently become a battalion commander. He cared deeply about his future prospects.

"Master! Was the Commander satisfied with the Firearms Battalion?" Several trusted Thousand Household and Hundred Household officers crowded around after He Rubin's departure.

"How the hell should I know?" Li Modao replied impatiently. "Just lead the brothers well! It looks like our Firearms Battalion will see major action in this expedition against the Hair Thieves."

After his subordinates dispersed, Li Modao glanced at the strange cannonballs awaiting collection by soldiers. He walked over, squatted down, and studied the projectiles cast under the foreign monk's supervision. Although the new ammunition had performed poorly in the test, Li Modao sensed vaguely that each type must have its own purpose—he simply didn't know what those purposes were.

If only I had someone around who understood Western gunnery, I could ask and learn, Li Modao thought.

Speaking of Western gunnery, Commander He was certainly the foremost authority in the Liangguang army, but Li was merely a minor Defender. How could he presume to question the Commander-in-Chief casually?

"Once the barrel is scrubbed clean, prepare to harness horses and return to camp," he ordered. Soldiers set about cleaning the barrel and packing up.

Soldiers brought newly purchased Sichuan horses to harness the cannon. Sichuan horses were small and weak. Not only were the carriages made very clumsily, but lacking limbers, the draft horses had to pull forward while simultaneously bearing weight on their backs. The efficiency of animal power was extremely poor; seven or eight horses could barely move the piece. Li Modao knew that Mongolian horses were rare in the south, and Jiangnan and Guangdong did not raise mules, so he had to make do with Sichuan horses.

"These horses have too little strength—not even as good as mules," a squad leader beside him observed.

"These are the small Sichuan horses of the south, smaller than a Shandong donkey," Li Modao said. "For pulling carts, they can't even match a donkey. They're passable for carrying loads on mountain paths, but for pulling carts or cannons, they're inadequate."

"This humble officer sees many oxen here. Why not use oxen?"

"Oxen frighten easily." He shook his head. "And they're too slow. Once the guns start firing on the battlefield, won't the oxen panic and ruin everything immediately?"

Yet oxen did possess endurance and greater strength than these Sichuan horses that could barely drag the cannons. The battalion had over thirty cannons exceeding a thousand catties; at four oxen per cannon, that meant over a hundred oxen, plus corresponding handlers. He didn't know whether Commander He would be willing to fund this additional expense.

Returning to camp and settling the cannons, Li Modao proceeded to the gunpowder workshop on the slopes below Yaniangxie Mountain. About five or six li from the camp battery, a sprawling collection of sheds served as a gunpowder manufactory. Materials for making gunpowder—sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter—were shipped here day and night from throughout the province. Occasionally other materials arrived as well: dried human feces, toxic herbs like aconite, lime, tung oil, and the like.

As commander of the Firearms Battalion, Li Modao's greatest concern was gunpowder supply. Although the government army did not lack for gunpowder, its quality varied enormously. Poor powder only puffed black smoke; sometimes cannonballs simply fell out of the muzzle. Other times the mixture was too potent and burst the barrel, often causing heavy casualties among the gunners.

For this expedition, He Rubin had commissioned him to oversee gunpowder and projectile manufacturing concurrently. For the commander of the Firearms Battalion, gunpowder and ammunition were matters of life and death; he could not afford to take them lightly.

Many large iron cauldrons had been set up in the sheds, boiling something that emitted foul odors. Li Modao recognized this as the process of purifying saltpeter and sulfur.

Not far away, three large stone grinding mills pulled by Sichuan horses crushed charcoal. Many laborers were pounding ash with rhythmic thump-thump sounds, while others sifted the ash to produce fine black powder. Still others mixed sulfur, saltpeter, and other substances into the charcoal powder according to prescribed ratios to make gunpowder.

The prepared gunpowder was transferred to stone troughs, where craftsmen continuously pounded it with thick wooden pestles. Elderly master craftsmen sat nearby, occasionally rubbing the powder between their fingers and adding clear water. The gunpowder had to be pounded as fine as possible; Li Modao recalled that the manuals prescribed over five thousand strokes. He had no idea how the craftsmen kept count.

Other workers sprayed slightly viscous water—soaked from wheat—onto spread-out gunpowder, then used bamboo sieves to shake out granular powder of various sizes.

(End of Chapter)